Sigismund III Vasa 1587-1632 Poland.1625 Silver Gross

Description: Lithuanian:ygimantas Vaza; 20 June 1566 30 April 1632N.S.) wasKing of PolandandGrand Duke of Lithuaniafrom 1587 to 1632 and, asSigismund,King of SwedenandGrand Duke of Finlandfrom 1592 to 1599. He was the first Polish sovereign from theHouse of Vasa. Religiously zealous, he imposedRoman Catholicismacross the vast realm, and his crusades against neighbouring states marked Poland's largest territorial expansion. As an enlightened despot, he presided over an era ofprosperityand achievement, further distinguished by the transfer of the country's capital fromKrakwtoWarsaw.Sigismund was the son of KingJohn III of Swedenand his first wife,Catherine Jagiellon, daughter of KingSigismund I of Poland. Elected monarch of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth in 1587, he sought to unify Poland and Sweden under one Catholic kingdom, and when he succeeded his deceased father in 1592 thePolishSwedish unionwas created. Opposition inProtestantSweden caused awar against Sigismundheaded by Sigismund's uncleCharles IX, who deposed him in 1599. Sigismund attempted to holdabsolute powerin all his dominions and frequently undermined parliament. He suppressed internal opposition, strengthened Catholic influence and granted privileges to theJesuits, whom he employed as advisors and spies during theCounter-Reformation. He actively interfered in the affairs of neighbouring countries; hisinvasion of Russiaduring theTime of Troublesresulted in brief control over Moscow and seizure ofSmolensk. Sigismund's army also defeated theOttomanforces in southeastern Europe, which hastened the downfall of SultanOsman II. However, the PolishSwedish conflict had a less favourable outcome. After a series of skirmishes ending in a truce, KingGustavus Adolphusof Sweden launched a campaign against the Commonwealth and annexed parts ofPolish Livonia. Sigismund remains a controversial figure in Poland. One of the country's most recognisablemonarchs, his long reign coincided with thePolish Golden Age, the apex in the prestige, power and economic influence of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. On the other hand, it was also during his rule that the seeds of decline surfaced. Considerable contributions to the arts and architecture as well as military victories were tarnished by intrigues and religious persecutions. He was commemorated in Warsaw bySigismund's Column, one of the city's chief landmarks and the first secular monument in the form of a column inmodern history. It was commissioned after Sigismund's death by his son and successor,Wadysaw IV. Born on 20 June 1566 atGripsholm Castle, Sigismund was the second child and only son ofCatherine Jagiellonand Grand DukeJohn of Finland.The couple was being held prisoner at Gripsholm since 1563 when John staged a failed rebellion against his deranged brotherEric XIV of Sweden.AlthoughProtestant Christianswere growing political wing in Poland at the time, Sigismund was raised as aRoman Catholic.His mother Catherine was the daughter of Polish kingSigismund the OldandBona SforzaofMilan, all of whom where practicing Catholics. Sigismund's older sister Isabella died aged two in 1566.His younger sisterAnnawas aLutheran, but the close relationship between the two siblings remained unchanged until her death in 1625. In October 1567, Sigismund and his parents were released from prison at the request of his uncleCharles.In January 1569, Eric XIV was deposed and Sigismund's father ascended the throne of Sweden as John III. He maintained good relations with his father despite John's second marriage toGunilla Bielke, a Protestant noble lady of lower status and Catherine's formermaid of honour.In 1589, Sigismund's half-brotherJohn, the future Duke ofstergtland, was born. As a child, Sigismund was tutored in both Polish and Swedish, thus making him bilingual.He was also proficient in German, Italian, andLatin. Catherine ensured that her son was educated in the spirit of Catholicism and Polish patriotism; the young prince was made aware of his blood connection to theJagiellonian dynastywhich ruled Poland in itsfinest periodfor two hundred years.Although Sigismund in his youth enjoyed reading and learning, observers did not acknowledge his intelligence. He was handsome, rather tall, and of slim build, but timid and an introvert who became heavily influenced by the teachings of the church.Nevertheless, Sigismund was undoubtedly multitalented and artistically inclined. Accession Sigismund in his youth, 1585. In 1587, Sigismund stood for election to the Polish throne after the death ofStephen Bthory. His candidacy was secured byQueen Dowager Annaand several elite magnates who considered him a native candidate as a descendant of the Jagiellons, though the election was openly questioned and opposed by the nobles politically associated with theZborowski family. With the blessing of primateStanisaw Karnkowskiand strong support from other people of influence he was duly elected ruler of thePolishLithuanian Commonwealthon 19 August 1587.His official name and title became "by the grace of God,king of Poland,grand duke of Lithuania, ruler ofRuthenia,Prussia,Masovia,Samogitia,Livoniaand also hereditaryking of the Swedes,GothsandWends"; the latter titles being a reference to the fact that he was already theCrown Princeof Sweden, and thus would lawfully succeed to thethrone of Swedenupon the death of his father. The outcome of the election was strongly contested by factions of the Polish nobility that backed the candidacy of ArchdukeMaximilian III of Austria, wholaunched a military expedition. When the news reached Sigismund in Sweden, he crossed theBalticand landed in Poland on 7 October, immediately agreeing to grant royal privileges to theSejm(parliament) in the hope of calming the opposition and settling the disputed election.He was proclaimed king by TreasurerJan Dulskion behalf ofCrown Marshal Andrzej Opaliski, and after arriving in the Royal Capital City ofKrakwhe was crowned on 27 December atWawel Cathedral. Sigismund's position was solidified when Zamoyski defeated Maximilian at theBattle of Byczynaand took him prisoner.At the request ofPope Sixtus V, the Archduke was then released and in turn surrendered his claim to Poland in 1589.He was also successful in maintaining peace with his powerful southern neighbour by marrying ArchduchessAnne of Habsburgin 1592.Simultaneously, he secured an alliance withCatholic Austriaagainst Protestant foes. When his father died, Sigismund was granted permission by the Polish Diet to claim theSwedish crown, which he had inherited from his father.The Swedes, who previously declared John III a Catholic conspirator and traitor, became lenient when the new monarch pledged to respectLutheranismas the country's new state religion.Sigismund was crowned atUppsalaon 19 February 1594,but his promise to uphold the Protestant faith in Sweden began on shaky ground, as demonstrated by the presence of a papalnuncioin the royal procession.Tensions grew following his coronation. Sigismund remained a devout Roman Catholic and left the country abruptly, which made the Swedes sceptical of their new ruler.After returning to Poland, he appointed his uncle,Duke Charles, to rule as hisregent.Sigismund's ultimate intention was to reinstate Catholicism in Sweden, by force if necessary.TheJesuitsoften acted as agents refuting Protestantism and promoting Catholicism in the country. Opposition ChancellorJan Zamoyskistaunchly opposed the pro-Habsburgalliance. The hostility between ChancellorJan Zamoyskiand Sigismund began as soon as he arrived in Poland from Sweden to claim the crown. Zamoyski, a patriotic brawler, along with other magnates were critical of the young king's liking for the Habsburg culture, certain habits and impassive cold character.According to historian and writerJulian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Zamoyski was said to have exclaimed "what a mute have you brought to us" upon meeting the king in October 1587. The Chancellor was initially supportive of Sigismund's candidacy due to his maternal lineage.During the first parliament sitting, the so-calledPacification Sejm, in March 1589, Zamoyski proposed extensive reforms of the electoral system; notably, he presented the idea that only a member of a local native dynasty should be eligible to the Polish throne in the future, entailing the permanent exclusion of anyHabsburgcandidates. Sigismund saw a potential ally in Austria; he sought to establish a Catholic league that would actively engage in theCounter-Reformation.Zamoyski openly condemned Sigismund for associating with the Habsburgs, particularlyArchduke Ernest, and speculated that Ernest was to be the potential successor if Sigismund abdicated and returned to Sweden. The anti-Austrian sentiment was only explicable as a circuitous attempt to traverse the Habsburg hegemony and influence in Central Europe, which Zamoyski perceived as a major threat.However, the parliament immediately rejected the proposal and ruled in favour of Austria, thus also accepting a marriage between Sigismund andAnne of Habsburg. Furthermore, the reestablishment of peaceful relations with Austria was dictated by theTreaty of Bytom and Bdzinfrom March 1589 which was negotiated by Ippolito Aldobrandini, future PopeClement VIII. the subsequent Sejm session, assembled in March 1590, Zamoyski persuaded the gathered deputies and representatives to exclude Archduke Maximilian from future candidacy to the throne, describing the possibility of Austrian intrigues and the looming threat of the Turkish Empire. His opponents, headed by Primate Karnkowski, formed an informalconfederationimmediately after the Sejm rose to protest the decrees. All of the decrees of the first Sejm were rescinded by a second Sejm which sat at the end of the same year: the Hetmanship was suspended, the party of Maximilian was amnestied, the Zborowskis were rehabilitated, and Zamoyski's counterparts were removed from the royal court.Tensions grew further over the ownership ofEstoniabetween Sweden and Poland following the dissolution of theLivonian Order; Zamoyski held Sigismund accountable for the dispute. Sigismund's leniency towards the Habsburgs also alienated some clerics; the Austrians wanted to preventAndrew Bthoryfrom seizing thebishopric of Krakwand succeeded in doing so by diplomatic coaxing or coercion.The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua, a staunch Habsburg supporter, eventually convinced Sigismund to nominateJerzy RadziwiafterPiotr Myszkowskidied on 5 April 1591. Capua stressed that Andrew had not been anordained priestand was not legally capable to become bishop. The decision strained the once friendly relations between Poland andTransylvania. Peace settlement Sigismund early in his reign, by court painterMartin Kober. As outlined byOskar Halecki, the king's friends were largely recruited from the higherclergyand the Jesuits, who violated the 1573Warsaw Confederationguaranteeing religious freedoms in Poland and Lithuania. As persecution loomed, political dissidents grouped and formed factions which called for adherence to the laws of the Confederation.Zamoyski joined the dissidents, and, when Sigismund failed to prevent mob violence directed against non-Catholics inVilniusandKrakwin 1591, he summoned several conventions that "demanded the guarantees of security".Sigismund yielded to their demands, however, he forbade any future conventions which could destabilize the state. The prohibition did not have a lasting effect, and gatherings of dissidents continued in the following year. The opposition hoped to thwart the match with Archduchess Anne of Habsburg, whose state entry into Krakw at the end of May was greatly celebrated.Sigismund disregarded any protest in regards to the marriage.Consequently, on 1 June 1592 Zamoyski formed another confederation atJdrzejw(Latin: Andreiow) attended by the most eminent and distinguishedmagnates, among themMikoaj ZebrzydowskiandStanisaw kiewski.At Andreiow, he allegedly exposed proof concerning a plot that would place Archduke Ernest on the throne if Sigismund was to abdicate. Zamoyski's claim caused an uproar. On 7 September, Sigismund summoned the "Warsaw Inquisition Sejm" (sejm inkwizycyjny) to inquire into the so-called "Austrian cabals". Zamoyski's strong argument against that of the monarch was so persuasive that elderly Karnkowski sided with the Chancellor and his supporters, who abstained from kissing the King's hand upon arrival as the custom required. Alleged letters and private correspondence between Sigismund and Ernest with the royal signature was presented as evidence. The King rebuked these accusations; his aides attributed the falsified signature to the courtscribe, who was subsequently imprisoned atDziadowo(Soldau), tortured, but pleaded not guilty. The opposition extended their demands and asked for the immediate removal of all foreign dignitaries from the court, includingmercenaries, which was not fully enforced. The Sejm had no definite outcome; most of the gathered nobles and diplomats dispersed as further incrimination of the sovereign proved futile and detrimental to the stability of the state.There is little evidence or written works from the period concerning the terms under which the Sejm functioned or how it concluded.Niemcewicz largely attributed the victory to Sigismund the measures of the Counter-Reformation strengthenedand within a year many of the convention's attendees died; acquiescent nobles favourable to the king were appointed as their successors, thus making his position less vulnerable.The rivalry between Sigismund and Zamoyski continued until the latter's death in 1605. War in Sweden Tensions Charles of Sweden, Sigismund's uncle, who waged war against Sigismund and Poland for the Swedish crown. TheUppsala Resolution of 1594dictated the rights and securities of Protestants in Sweden; it promised to uphold the Lutheran faith in the country, forbade non-Lutherans from being appointed to office or participating in the educational system and prevented Sigismund from freely raising taxes for war.However, the resolution was undermined whenever possible.With military backing, Sigismund installed his own commanders in Swedish castles and made them responsible directly to him.He established the office of regional governor (stthllare) and appointed Charles' lifelong enemy,Klaus Fleming, as the overlord ofFinland. The governors served notice that they would abstain from persecuting Catholicism in their administered territories. Erik Brahe, a Roman Catholic, became the governor of Sweden's capital city,Stockholm, in defiance of the 1594 charter which sparked widespread anger. On 4 August 1594 Sigismund decreed that the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) had no right to function without royal consent.Despite this, Charles summoned a parliament atSderkpingin autumn of 1595, at which he declared himselfregentand head of government, who would govern Sweden reciprocally with thePrivy Councilduring the King's absence from the realm. The Finnish nobility led by Fleming rejected this resolution and so did Sigismund's emissary who ordered him, in the name of the king, to resign. Fleming sympathised with Sigismund and considered Charles a rebel. In response, Charles instigated a brief revolt against Fleming among the peasants underJaakko Ilkkain the province ofOstrobothnia, known today as theCudgel War. As outlined by historian Gary Dean Peterson, Fleming might have quelled the rebellion but it was Charles who took advantage of the brutality of Fleming's men and started a successful propaganda war. The prospects of Polish and Catholic domination over Sweden became uncertain whenKlaus Flemingdied on 13 April 1597. He was succeeded byArvid Stlarm the Younger, who did not accede to Swedish demands and awaited Charles' intervention in Finland.Meanwhile, the nobility dispersed;Erik Gustafsson Stenbock,Arvid Gustafsson Stenbock,Erik Larsson Sparre, Erik Brahe andSten Banrfled to entreat Sigismund to return and counter Charles. Civil war Equestrian portrait of King Sigismund byPeter Paul Rubens In 1597, a civil war erupted and Duke Charles was able to assume control over a large share of the powerful castles in Sweden, and in this manner achieved control over almost all the realm.However, Finland remained loyal to Sigismund and resisted. In September 1597, he sailed for the Finnish coast and seizedbo Castlefrom Fleming's widow,Ebba Stenbock, by the end of the month.Charles's troops were not prepared nor strong enough to conquer or hold Finland in its entirety they sailed back to Stockholm in October and Stlarm retook bo the same year. As noted by envoys, several high-ranking noblemen fighting for Sigismund's cause were instantaneously sent to thescaffold.Further tensions and escalation of violence as well as Charles's unpredictable stance persuaded Sigismund to intervene.Christian IV of Denmarkagreed to cooperate but would not join the armed conflict.The major seaports ofDanzig(Gdask),LbeckandRostockwere pressured to sever trade with Sweden.Polishprivateersbegan to violently attack Swedish vessels in the Baltic.By February 1598 Sigismund assembled an army consisting of approximately 5,000 men.On 23 July 1598 the army left Danzig (Gdask) with eighty transports, several warships and exiled members of the Swedish parliament.Eight days later they landed inKalmar, which surrendered without a fight. After the fall of Kalmar, Charles found himself with major trouble on his hands; thePolish Crown armyattracted Swedish followers, and Stockholm, lacking military defence, was easily taken with the help of the nobility and officers ofGtaland.The cavalry ofUpplandsoon joined the royalists, and new forces were mobilised in Finland and Estonia.Charles' troops were greater in numbers, but mostly comprised poorly-trained militias and peasants from the friendly provinces. Linkping Castlewhere Sigismund met with Charles to discuss the future of the Swedish monarchy. Sigismund advanced his troops towards Stngebro inLinkpingwhere his sisterAnna Vasaresided.On 8 September Charles executed a premature attack on Stngebro which was quickly repelled; his force was surrounded in the night and massacred by the Poles.Severed heads on lances and spikes startled Sigismund who ordered an end to the violence.The supposed truce did not come into effect, and, on the morning of 25 September, the armies clashed once more in a major engagement at theBattle of Stngebro. The prevailingfogwas instrumental at hiding troop movement; the Swedish rebels used the opportunity to take the bridges on the riverStngnwhen Sigismund's men were falsely led into a truce and retreated to their camp.Their attempt to regroup and form a second defensive line proved futile and Charles emerged victorious as the Polish army was also cut off from supplies by superiorSwedish warships. Aftermath and deposition The peace agreement was sealed with a dinner atLinkping Castleon 28 September. Both sides agreed to lay down arms and send the troops back to their home provinces, except for the King's personal guard.Charles' appointments were to be recognized and a parliament was to be called to settle any disputes.The King, who was under pressure, fearing for his life without his army and having realised that he had lost the political battle, fled with his sister during the coming days to Poland. At the same time as the peace treaty was being signed in Linkping, conflicts were taking place inDalarna.There, a pro-Sigismund bailiff,Jacob Nf, had tried to raise up theDalecarliansagainst Duke Charles. Chaos ensued, Nf was executed, and the Dalecarlians set out on a campaign in 1598, burning and killing down to Brunnbck ferry. InVstergtland,Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm, illegitimate son of Duke Charles, defeated the rebellion. A number of Swedes who had sided with Sigismund, including his council supporters, were handed over to Charles as part of the peace settlement. They were later killed in theLinkping Bloodbathof 1600. Sigismund was officially deposed from the throne of Sweden by a Riksdag held in Stockholm on 24 July 1599. He was given six (or twelve depending on source) months to send his son, PrinceLadislaus (Wadysaw) Vasa, to Sweden as his successor, under the condition that the boy would be brought up in the Protestant faith.In February 1600, Duke Charles summoned theEstates of the RealmtoLinkping. Since Sigismund had not provided a reply, the Estates elected Duke Charles as King apparent, however he would not become Charles IX until his coronation four years later.During the winter and spring of 1600, Charles also occupied the Swedish part of Estonia, as the castle commanders had shown sympathies towards Sigismund. Polish affairs Clash with England (1597) Portrait of Sigismund as a young adult by Jan Szwankowski, ca. 1590. In the 1590s, the interests of theEnglishand theOttoman Turkscoincided in opposing theSpanish; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast.In theLow Countriesof northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent byElizabeth Ifought the Catholic armies of Spain'sPhilip II Habsburg, preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of theEnglish Channel. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating theMediterranean, to the benefit of the Turks.During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.Edward Barton, Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland. In July 1597, theQueen's Privy CouncilinstructedHenry Billingsley,Lord Mayor of London, to arrange housing for a Polish diplomat and report back to the Council.On 23 July,Pawe Dziayskiarrived inLondonand was accommodated at the house ofSir John Spencer.On 25 July, Dziayski was granted an audience with Elizabeth and her court at thepalaceinGreenwich.As described byRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person."He presented his credentials, kissed the Queen's hand, then walked to the centre of the chamber and, as outlined by Cecil, "began his oration aloud inLatin, with such a gallant countenance as in my life I never beheld." Dziayski informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish andHanseaticmerchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo. Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Dziayski, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to that of "a herald than an ambassador."She reminded him that England was instrumental in halting the Turkish advances and added "I can hardly believe that if the King [Sigismund] himself were present he would have used such language."Sigismund emerged successful in securing trade with the Spanish Crown and with England, though the relations between the two nations became strained. According to historians Kavita Mudan Finn and Valerie Schutte,William Shakespearemight have used Elizabeth's political anger at the Polish ambassador as an inspiration forQueen Margaretwho employs similar strategies in the playRichard III. Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606) Dethronisation act issued on 24 June 1607. Sigismund's attempt to grasp unlimited authority resulted in theZebrzydowski rebellion, an armed insurrection formed in 1606 byHetmanMikoaj Zebrzydowski,Jan Szczsny Herburt,Stanisaw Stadnicki,Aleksander Jzef Lisowskiand PrinceJanusz RadziwiinStycaandLublin.It was primarily caused by the growing dissatisfaction with the monarch among the Polishszlachtaand wealthymagnates. The rebels disapproved of Sigismund's efforts to weaken the diplomatic and political capabilities of the nobility and to introduce an absolute monarchy. The participants of the rebellion formed a war council and outlined their demands in 67 articles.They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching theHenrician Articlesand stipulated the expulsion ofJesuitsfrom thePolishLithuanian Commonwealth.The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded.The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village ofGuzw.In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led byHetmanJan Karol Chodkiewicz, was sent to pacify the rebels. Afull-scale battle ensuedon 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces. The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as thePacification Sejm.In return for their surrender the rebels were granted leniency.Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels.Despite the failure to overthrow Sigismund, the rebellion firmly established the rights and privileges of nobles in the Polish political system, confirmed the inviolability of the royal elections and religious tolerance. Sigismund's invasion of Russia (16091618) Sigismund as supreme commander of PolandLithuania, dressed inhose. Sigismund's major goals were achieving stability of government, combating Protestantism, and expanding Poland's territory.[91]While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as theTime of Troubles, Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side. Background The death ofFeodor I of Russiain 1598 caused internal instability and a succession crisis upon the extinction of theRurik dynasty.Further setbacks that contributed to the escalation of violence was thefamine of 16011603which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population. The newTsar,Boris Godunov, proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605.He left one son,Feodor II, who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders. Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to beDmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son ofIvan the Terriblewho in fact died in 1591.After the fall of Sigismund's candidates False Dmitry Iand his Polish wifeMarina Mniszech(nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) Vasili IvanovichShuyskywas crowned as Vasili IV. The death of False Dmitry and widespread chaos proved reason for Poland to prepare an invasion. Prior raids between 1605 and 1609 were conducted by Polish nobles or adventurers along with hiredcossacksand foreignmercenaries.Sigismund's primary intention was to destroy the Russian state and imposeCatholicismwith the use of force or terror if necessary.Lew Sapieha, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing toBoris Godunovan "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and PolandLithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined. Campaign Victorious Sigismund atSmolensk, by Italian-born artistTommaso Dolabella, 1611. TheCommonwealth armyunder the command of HetmanStanisaw kiewskicrossed the border and on 29 September 1609laid siege to Smolensk.On 4 July 1610, at theBattle of Klushino, the outnumbered Polish force achieved a decisive victory over Russian troops, mostly due to the tactical competence of thePolish winged hussars.The battle was a major blow to the Russians; TsarVasili IVwas subsequently ousted by theSeven Boyarsand kiewski entered Moscow beginning the two-year tyrannical occupation of theKremlin. The Seven Boyars proclaimed Polish princeLadislaus, Sigismund's son, as the new Tsar of Russia.In June 1611 Smolensk fell to thePoles; the deposed Vasili Shuysky was transported in a caged wagon to Warsaw, where he paidtributeto Sigismund and theSenateat theRoyal Castleon 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity atGostynin; he was most likely poisoned as his brother died soon after.The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationing in Moscow. In 1611,Kuzma MininandDmitry Pozharskyformed a new army to launch an uprising against the Polish occupiers.The Poles eventuallywithdrew from Moscowin September 1612 after pillaging and burning the city. When news reached Sigismund he hurried with a relief force, but was unable to commence an attack.The war continued with little military action until 1618 when theTruce of Deulinowas signed, which granted Poland new territories, including the city of Smolensk.The agreement marked the greatest geographical expansion of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth until the loss of Livonia in 1629.However, Russia was able to retain independence andMichael Romanovwas crowned Tsar in 1613.This established theRomanov dynastywhich ruled Russia until theFebruary Revolutionin 1917. Sigismund's personal ambition of ruling the vast lands in the east as well as converting its populace to Catholicism ended in a fiasco. According toAlexander Gillespie, approximately five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, civil war, instigated famine and Sigismund's politics. Thirty Years' War (16181648) Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of theThirty Years' War, but was denied by the Polish parliament.British historianRobert Nisbet Bainwrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupyTransylvania, then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to theHabsburg monarchyand Poland.TheRkczisandGabriel Bethlenwere sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose. Bain further highlighted that the chief pillars of military strength in Poland, includingStanisaw kiewski, warmly approved of the King's policy in this respect, but it proved to be impracticable.The parliament's non-interventionist stance went so far that it refused to grant any subsidies for theSwedish Wars.The indecision and political opposition weakened the alliance between the Habsburg states and the Commonwealth. Polish mercenaries did, however, join theHoly Roman Empirein combat at theBattle of Humennagainst Transylvania. PolishOttoman War (16201621 Apotheosisof Sigismund following his victory over theOttoman Empire,etchingfrom 1629. The King's spear striking aTurksymbolizes the triumph of Catholicism and Christianity overIslam. ThePrincipality of Moldaviawas a Polishfiefsince theMiddle Agesand Sigismund aimed at securing that despite the growing threat from the south. With theOttomaninfluence on the rise, the Sultan aimed at expanding the Ottoman Empire westward. TheOttomanHabsburg wars, which lasted almost two centuries, were also a sign of the Sultan's desire to rule mainland Europe. VoivodeGaspar Graziani, ruler of Moldavia, decided to switch sides in favour of Poland and rebelled against the Turks.In turn, Sigismund sent an army to aid Graziani, a move which sparked thePolishOttoman War. In 1620 the Polish forces were defeated atCecoraand Hetman kiewski perished during the battle.In 1621 a strong army of Ottomans, led byOsman II, advanced fromEdirnetowards the Polish frontier. Approximately 160,000 men besieged theKhotyn Fortressin September 1621, but were defeated at theBattle of Khotynby a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers. During the siege HetmanJan Karol Chodkiewiczdied of exhaustion and illness in the camp. TheTreaty of Khotynwas signed on 9 October 1621 which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland.Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiantjanissaries.His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units.That opposition resulted in the1622 rebellionin which Osman II was deposed andstrangled. PolishSwedish War (16261629) Gustavus Adolphus of Swedenin a Polish costume, 16311632. A lifelong enemy of Sigismund, he attempted to take Ducal Prussia and Livonia. Following a series of conflicts between Poland and Sweden in16001611,16171618, and16211625, all of which ended in astalemate,Gustavus Adolphusinvaded in 1626 to gain control overLivoniaand relinquish Sigismund's claim to the Swedish crown.Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonablecasus belliand justification for war.Though the Polish army achieved major victories in the previous battles against Sweden, particularly atKircholmin 1605, the very end proved to be catastrophic. The first skirmish took place in January 1626 nearWallhof, in present-dayLatvia, where the Swedish army of 4,900 men ambushed a Polish force of 2,000 men commanded byJan Stanisaw Sapieha, son of Lew Sapieha. Polish casualties were estimated at between 500 and 1,000 dead, wounded and captured. According to historians, the Polish-Lithuanian commander later suffered anervous breakdown. In May 1626 the Swedes enteredPolish Ducal Prussia.Escorted by a fleet, a second Swedish army disembarked in July near the town ofPiawa (Pillau).The landings were a complete surprise to the Commonwealth's defences, and despite a relatively small Swedish force, Gustavus Adolphus quickly captured the coastal towns and cities, almost without a fight.Many of these were inhabited byProtestantswho resisted the staunchly Catholic Sigismund and Polish domination of their lands; some towns opened their gates to the Protestant Swedish forces whom they portrayed as liberators.However, fortifiedGdask(Danzig), which maintained its own standing army and a sizeable fleet, refused to surrender.Simultaneously, Sigismund received little to no support from his vassalGeorge William of Brandenburg-Prussia, who, as aCalvinist, pledged neutrality in the conflict.Jdrzej Moraczewskidescribed George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical". Portrait byPeter Paul Rubens,c.1620s The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdask by deploying an army to fight atGniew.The fighting continued for several days until 1 October, when Sigismund ordered the withdrawal of his troops, and called on reinforcements from around the country.The battle, despite a tactical victory for Sweden, was a strategic blow to Gustavus, who was subsequently unable to besiege Gdask.AtDirschau, in the summer of 1627, Gustavus Adolphus was seriously wounded and the Prussian campaign came to a halt.The wound forced the king to stay in bed until autumn, and his right arm was weakened with some fingers partially paralyzed.As the major trade ports on the coast of theBaltic Seawere blocked by Swedish vessels, Sigismund sent a small squadron of ten ships underArend Dickmannto engage the Swedes at theBattle of Oliva. It was the largest naval battle fought by thePolish royal navy, which successfully defeated the enemy fleet and broke the Swedish blockade. Although Poland emerged victorious in the finalbattle at Trzciana, Sigismund's exhausted camp accepted a peace offer.TheTruce of Altmarksigned on 26 September 1629 (16 September O.S.) granted Sweden the control ofLivonia, though Prussia,LatgaleandDyneburgremained under Polish governance. Assassination attempt Assassination attempt on Sigismund byMicha Piekarskiin 1620. An unsuccessful attempt on the life of the King was made on 15 November 1620.It occurred on Sunday morning when the monarch and his entourage was to attendmassatSt. John's Archcathedralin Warsaw. Sigismund was to arrive by crossing the alley or passage that linked theRoyal Castlewith the temple. As the royal procession drew closer to the churchdoor, hidden in a nearby portal was petty noblemanMicha Piekarski, armed with awar axe.When the monarch reached the final steps, Piekarski leaped out and threw himself on the King, stabbing him twice, firstly in the back and then in the cheek, and striking him in the arm.However, he was not able to deliver a fatal blow due to the intervention of royal guardsmen as well as Court Marshalukasz Opaliski, who shielded the King.Concurrently, Prince Ladislaus wounded the assassin on the head with asabre. Other accounts state that no guards were present; thecortegehad a casual character and the assassin was most likely overpowered by the attendees. The gateway between theWarsaw Castleand St. John's Cathedral was constructed as a precaution after the assassination attempt. Parishioners gathered around the pale and lifeless King, who collapsed to the ground after the incident.The guards and other attendants, among themMarcin Szyszkowski, were able to revive him and after a medical examination the wounds were found to be non-life-threatening. Chaos erupted when false rumours spread that the King had been murdered as his clothes were stained in blood. Initially, the townsfolk believed that the city was being attacked; the confusion arose when an Italian priest's crytraditore!(traitor) was misinterpreted as "Tatar". The assassin was widely regarded as a mentally unstablemelancholic, unrestrained in deeds.Piekarski's most probable cause for the assassination was fame and recognition; the successful assassination ofHenry IVinParis(1610) byFranois Ravaillacserved as motivation for his actions.For the appropriate moment Piekarski waited patiently ten years.At his trial, he did not deny the crime he committed and heavily insulted the monarch, whilst blaming himself for the failedregicide.Piekarski was executed in a similar manner as Ravaillac on 27 November 1620 in Warsaw; he was publicly humiliated, tortured, and his bodytorn apartby horses.The dismembered remains were subsequently burned and their ashes scattered by a cannon. Death Sigismund III oncatafalquefollowing his death. Towards the end of his reign, Sigismund withdrew altogether from politics and devoted himself exclusively to family matters and his interests in performing arts. Little is known about the King's wellbeing at the time suggesting that he was in good health. However, in his last days he became bedridden due togoutand joint pain, an affliction which was likely inherited from his grandfatherSigismund the Old.His uncle,Sigismund II Augustus, also suffered from long-termarthritis. Shortly after the unexpected death of his second wife,Constance, Sigismund fell dangerously ill and experienced mental problems, notably he was struck with severedepression.In November 1631, bishopAchacy Grochowskitravelled toWarsawand wrote "the monarch is of sound mind, his heart and stomach [abdomen] are healthy".[157]Already in advanced age for the period, onSaint Catherine's Day(25 November) he appeared "cheerful, with a ruddy face, and in good spirit hoped to leave bed".Nevertheless, the gouty arthritis progressed and medics applied red-hot iron to the painful swelling with no effect.The king sensed that death is near and ordered an immediate assembly of nobles, which convened on 1 April.The so-called 'extraordinary parliament' (sejm ekstraordynaryjny) secured the candidacy and election of his son, Ladislaus, to the throne.bOnEaster Sundayhe participated in final prayers, whilst being supported by his sons to prevent him from collapsing. At eight in the morning on 25 April,Kasper Doenhoff, a courtier in charge of opening curtains in the royal bedchamber and greeting the monarch, did not hear a response.Unable to see at a distance he approached Sigismund whose face was paralyzed from astroke.Hours later he briefly recovered his speech and murmured "there is no cure against the will [power] of death".The paralysis worsened and on 27 AprilUrszula Meyerinacted as spokeswoman, speaking on behalf of the mumbling king. Prince Ladislaus arrived on the same day.On 28 April, Sigismund's bed was surrounded by his courtiers and the Jesuit priests, who performedexorcism-like prayers.It was his wish that the court be witness to his demise, as interpreted in the words "vanitas vanitatis",Latinfor 'all is vanity'. After days of suffering, Sigismund passed away at Warsaw'sRoyal Castleat approximately 2:45 am (02:45) on 30 April 1632. His close aideAlbrycht S. Radziwillwrote "theautopsyon the same day in the afternoon determined that the king's internal organs were healthy. He could have lived another twenty years".His embalmed body was placed in an elaboratetincoffin decorated with soldiers, battle scenes and musical motifs, a masterpiece of 17th-century tin-making.The coffin was interred inside the royal crypt atWawel CathedralinKrakwon 4 February 1633

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